Difference between revisions of "France NGO Sector"

From NGO Handbook
(→‎The Association Law of 1901)
(→‎Overview)
 
(5 intermediate revisions by the same user not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
 
==Overview==
 
==Overview==
  
−
The history of French non-governmental organizations (NGOs), known as '''organisations non-governementales''' (ONGs), involves navigating various institutional definitions as well as sifting through time-ordered values attached to the State’s social, economic, and international interests (Archambault 1993, p. p.1; Paul 2000, Sorgenfrei 2004,p.4). As a relatively recent term coined in the aftermath of World War II, the acronym “NGO” first appeared in 1945 in the '''United Nations Charter'''<ref>It is often noted that the term NGO appears in chapter 10, article 71 of the United Nations Charter and refers to both international and national organizations that hold special consultation status (Paul 2000, para. 20; Wikipedia 2008a, section History and Consultative Status, section History). </ref> (Paul 2000, para. 20; Wikipedia 2008a, section history). Scholars remark that the United Nation’s definition, which differentiates NGOs “from those of government”, is broad enough to cover a multitude of associations, voluntary associations, institutes, non-profits and private foundations (Paul 2000, para. 2; Willets 2002, summary). French NGOs typically include an array of civic and internationally minded players such as mutual societies, development organizations, associations and foundations (Newman 2005).
+
The history of French non-governmental organizations (NGOs), known as '''organisations non-governementales''' (ONGs), involves navigating various institutional definitions as well as sifting through time-ordered values attached to the State’s social, economic, and international interests (Archambault 1993, p. p.1; Paul 2000, Sorgenfrei 2004,p.4). As a relatively recent term coined in the aftermath of World War II, the acronym “NGO” first appeared in 1945 in the '''United Nations Charter'''<ref>It is often noted that the term NGO appears in chapter 10, article 71 of the United Nations Charter and refers to both international and national organizations that hold special consultation status (Paul 2000, para. 20; Wikipedia 2008a, section History and Consultative Status, section History). </ref> (Paul 2000, para. 20; Wikipedia 2008a, section history). Scholars remark that the United Nation’s definition, which differentiates NGOs “from those of government”, is broad enough to cover a multitude of associations, voluntary associations, institutes, non-profits and private foundations (Paul 2000, para. 2; Willets 2002, summary). French NGOs typically include an array of civic and internationally minded players such as mutual societies, development organizations, associations and foundations (Newman 2005). <membersonly>
  
 
The ideology behind France’s NGO movement traces back to the Middle Ages with ''religious charity groups'' and ''medieval guilds'' (Archambault 2001, p.205, 207). Recent scholarly activity and research, such as Edith Archambault’s work on non-profits whose outline this article follows (see mainly Archambault 2001 as well as 1993)<ref>  Since scholars remark that few studies have been conducted outlining the NGO movement in France as a whole (Archambault 2001, p.204, Sorgenfrei 2004, p.7), this historical background closely follows the chronological look at associations and the Third Sector offered by political scientist Edith Archambault. Researchers such as Sorgenfrei (2004, p.7) remark at the limited research in the field and refer to Archambault’s work (referring to Archambault, 1996) as offering an essential account of France’s non-profit sector and its relationship with French centralism (see Archambault 2001). Archambault breaks down the historical movement into “long term trends” dating from the Revolution to the early 1900s, the World Wars and modern times (Archambault 2001, p.204; 1993).  </ref>, have focused on a chronologically shifting, delicate, and often hostile relationship between French state responsibility and that of associations and non-profits towards “public benefit”<ref>In her breakdown of French organizations for the Council on Foundations, Caroline Newman writes about “public benefit” when referring to the responsibility of associations as well as foundations. (Newman 2005, III.B).</ref> (Newman 2005, III.B.; Archambault 1993/2001). This hostile relationship burgeoned during the French Revolution (1789-1799)<ref>The French Revolution marks a break from France’s traditional past of absolute monarchy and church rule. It is the beginning of France’s modern period where a new Republicanism introduced political and social ideals for democracy and citizenry (see Hunt 1984/1996 and Nord 1995 for discussion on citizenry, democracy and French Republicanism 1995).</ref> when government banned charitable groups founded under the ''ancien régime'' and established central French ''étatism'', or the concentration of civil responsibility under the government’s control (Archambault 1993, p. 2/2001, p.205).
 
The ideology behind France’s NGO movement traces back to the Middle Ages with ''religious charity groups'' and ''medieval guilds'' (Archambault 2001, p.205, 207). Recent scholarly activity and research, such as Edith Archambault’s work on non-profits whose outline this article follows (see mainly Archambault 2001 as well as 1993)<ref>  Since scholars remark that few studies have been conducted outlining the NGO movement in France as a whole (Archambault 2001, p.204, Sorgenfrei 2004, p.7), this historical background closely follows the chronological look at associations and the Third Sector offered by political scientist Edith Archambault. Researchers such as Sorgenfrei (2004, p.7) remark at the limited research in the field and refer to Archambault’s work (referring to Archambault, 1996) as offering an essential account of France’s non-profit sector and its relationship with French centralism (see Archambault 2001). Archambault breaks down the historical movement into “long term trends” dating from the Revolution to the early 1900s, the World Wars and modern times (Archambault 2001, p.204; 1993).  </ref>, have focused on a chronologically shifting, delicate, and often hostile relationship between French state responsibility and that of associations and non-profits towards “public benefit”<ref>In her breakdown of French organizations for the Council on Foundations, Caroline Newman writes about “public benefit” when referring to the responsibility of associations as well as foundations. (Newman 2005, III.B).</ref> (Newman 2005, III.B.; Archambault 1993/2001). This hostile relationship burgeoned during the French Revolution (1789-1799)<ref>The French Revolution marks a break from France’s traditional past of absolute monarchy and church rule. It is the beginning of France’s modern period where a new Republicanism introduced political and social ideals for democracy and citizenry (see Hunt 1984/1996 and Nord 1995 for discussion on citizenry, democracy and French Republicanism 1995).</ref> when government banned charitable groups founded under the ''ancien régime'' and established central French ''étatism'', or the concentration of civil responsibility under the government’s control (Archambault 1993, p. 2/2001, p.205).
Line 33: Line 33:
 
Newman (2005) notes that a categorization between ''general interest status'' and ''public utility status'' creates a typography for non-profit and NGO organizations (Newman 2005, III.B-IV.E). She lists some general interest groups as specializing in cultural, educational, humanitarian and environmental activities (Newman 2005, III.B.1. para. 2 General Interest Status). Public utility groups also perform activities that fall under general interest and public benefit, but these organizations require special authorization from the ''Conseil d’Etat'' (Archambault 1993, p.9/2001, p.210; Newman 2005, III.B.2 Public Utility Status). Once the head of state authorizes an organization as “state-approved,” the association holds “full legal” status, including the right to legacies and property (Archambault 2001, p.210; Newman 2005, see V.A. Tax Exemptions).  
 
Newman (2005) notes that a categorization between ''general interest status'' and ''public utility status'' creates a typography for non-profit and NGO organizations (Newman 2005, III.B-IV.E). She lists some general interest groups as specializing in cultural, educational, humanitarian and environmental activities (Newman 2005, III.B.1. para. 2 General Interest Status). Public utility groups also perform activities that fall under general interest and public benefit, but these organizations require special authorization from the ''Conseil d’Etat'' (Archambault 1993, p.9/2001, p.210; Newman 2005, III.B.2 Public Utility Status). Once the head of state authorizes an organization as “state-approved,” the association holds “full legal” status, including the right to legacies and property (Archambault 2001, p.210; Newman 2005, see V.A. Tax Exemptions).  
  
−
Archambault (2001) notes that the importance of the Association Law of 1901 is that it opened the door for diverse French interest groups to stake claim and recognition (Archambault 2001, p.210). Today, that claim reaches globally with membership into groups such as the ''International Federation of Human Rights (Fédération Internationale des Droits de l’Homme)'' (see Wikipedia article International Federation of Human Rights and http://www.fidh.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=350 section "about us" for information on FIDH).
+
Archambault (2001) notes that the importance of the Association Law of 1901 is that it opened the door for diverse French interest groups to stake claim and recognition (Archambault 2001, p.210).<ref>While Archambault (2001)  states that, at the time, the 1901 law allowed nonprofits to “legalize,” she also claims that “few new social movements were observed.” (p.210). Instead, she points to World War I as “a turning point for the nonprofit sector in other ways.” (Archambault 2001, p.211).</ref> Today, that claim reaches globally with membership into groups such as the ''International Federation of Human Rights (Fédération Internationale des Droits de l’Homme)'' (see Wikipedia article International Federation of Human Rights and http://www.fidh.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=350 section "about us" for information on FIDH).
  
 
===World Wars and Transnational Outreach===
 
===World Wars and Transnational Outreach===
Line 39: Line 39:
 
While scholars note that historically the term “NGO” entered official lexicon after 1945, organizational activity between the wars did exist (Willets 2002, Intro. para. 1).  Archambault (2001) writes that in France World War I served as a “turning point” for French “relief organization” (Archambault 2001, p.211).  For example, she notes that the Red Cross flourished and provided for war victims, and mutual-aid societies struggled to dominate insurance (Archambault 2001, p.211). And while the French government still held control of social aid, charity groups worked to combat inflation, sickness and poverty (Archambault 1993/2001, p.211-212). The period between the wars also saw a rise in immigration, which brought new social interests and organizations to France with immigrant groups forming (Archambault 1993 p.12/2001, p.211).   
 
While scholars note that historically the term “NGO” entered official lexicon after 1945, organizational activity between the wars did exist (Willets 2002, Intro. para. 1).  Archambault (2001) writes that in France World War I served as a “turning point” for French “relief organization” (Archambault 2001, p.211).  For example, she notes that the Red Cross flourished and provided for war victims, and mutual-aid societies struggled to dominate insurance (Archambault 2001, p.211). And while the French government still held control of social aid, charity groups worked to combat inflation, sickness and poverty (Archambault 1993/2001, p.211-212). The period between the wars also saw a rise in immigration, which brought new social interests and organizations to France with immigrant groups forming (Archambault 1993 p.12/2001, p.211).   
  
−
World War II briefly halted associational life with repression from the interim Vichy government (1940-1944), but this repression was short-lived (Archambault 2001, p.212). At the end of World War II organizations and advocates sought to demonstrate influence in the newly established United Nations (Willets 2002, Intro para. 1). In particular, Pendergast (1976) writes that the French looked to establish the United Nation’s Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and thus “cultural relations”, in the heart of Paris (Pendergast 1976, p.453-456). Pendergast writes that these activists argued that the siege of advocacy was in Paris where NGOs would work for the ‘development of culture’, promote ‘universal solidarity,’ and establish an arena for ‘intellectual cooperation’ (Pendergast 1976, p.455 - 456).  
+
World War II briefly halted associational life with repression from the interim ''Vichy government'' (1940-1944), but this repression was short-lived (Archambault 2001, p.212). At the end of World War II organizations and advocates sought to demonstrate influence in the newly established United Nations (Willets 2002, Intro para. 1). In particular, Pendergast (1976) writes that the French looked to establish the United Nation’s Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and thus “cultural relations”, in the heart of Paris (Pendergast 1976, p.453-456). Pendergast writes that these activists argued that the siege of advocacy was in Paris where NGOs would work for the ‘development of culture’, promote ‘universal solidarity,’ and establish an arena for ‘intellectual cooperation’ (Pendergast 1976, p.455 - 456).  
  
−
Development NGOs also saw a proliferation after World War II, particularly in the 1950s and 1960s (Archambault 2001, p.215; Sorgenfrei 2004, p.10).  These groups responded to decolonization efforts in Africa and promoted resurgence in Catholic charity groups (Archambault 2001, p.214) marking a path for modern day organizations such as, Sorgenfrei (2004) notes, the Catholic Committee Against Hunger and For Development (Comité Catholique contre la Faim et pour le Dévelopment) and Brothers of Men (Frères des Hommes) (Sorgenfrei 2004, p.10; Cohen 2004,p.2).  Solidarity movements, such as the 1968 student riots , fortified public concern for civic issues such as feminism and environmentalism, but also provoked the State (Archambault 2001, p. 215). Nevertheless, Archambault (2001) writes, the 1970s and 1980s, and the advent of the 1982 Decentralization Act (La loi de la décentralization de 1982) , spurred alliances with a government that bolstered France’s “social economy” through “subsidies, fiscal incentives and tax-deductions” for non-profits and other associations (Archambault 2001, p.216).
+
Development NGOs also saw a proliferation after World War II, particularly in the 1950s and 1960s (Archambault 2001, p.215; Sorgenfrei 2004, p.10).  These groups responded to decolonization efforts in Africa and promoted resurgence in Catholic charity groups (Archambault 2001, p.214) marking a path for modern day organizations such as, Sorgenfrei (2004) notes, the ''Catholic Committee Against Hunger and For Development (Comité Catholique contre la Faim et pour le Dévelopment)'' and ''Brothers of Men (Frères des Hommes)'' (Sorgenfrei 2004, p.10; Cohen 2004,p.2).  Solidarity movements, such as the 1968 student riots,<ref>The 1968 student riots, known as the May riots, brought together students, unions and the working class to rally against central control in the administration and under De Gaulle, leading to strikes, sit-ins and political slogans to defend the day’s social, educational and political causes (See Wikipedia article May 1968 para.1 for an overview of the events). Archambault (2001) states that associations at the time focused on protecting the environment, feminist rights (including the issues of birth control and abortion) and international development (Archambault 2001, p.215).</ref> fortified public concern for civic issues such as feminism and environmentalism, but also provoked the State (Archambault 2001, p. 215). Nevertheless, Archambault (2001) writes, the 1970s and 1980s, and the advent of the ''1982 Decentralization Act'' (La loi de la décentralization de 1982)<ref>See Archambault’s 1993 work, Defining the Nonprofit Sector: France for a detailed breakdown of the 1982 Decentralization Act.</ref>, spurred alliances with a government that bolstered France’s “social economy” through “subsidies, fiscal incentives and tax-deductions” for non-profits and other associations (Archambault 2001, p.216).
  
 
===France, NGOs and Globalization Today===
 
===France, NGOs and Globalization Today===
  
−
Recognizing “a million associations” namely in the humanitarian, development, environmental and human rights sectors, the French government today has expressed interest in open dialogue and partnerships with NGOs (see Ministry of Youth, Sports and Associational Life webpage un cadre institutionnel rénové on associations.gouv.fr, para. 1; Levitte 2005, p.1; and D’Orfeuil 2005 Non Governmental Cooperation, Newsletter no 1, p.2). Newman writes that reinforcing this partnership through a charter signed on July 1, 2001, the State recognizes a place for NGOs within the French national ethos and mutually commits to “‘greater solidarity’” (Newman, New Relations Between the French State and NGOs The “State Association Charter”, para. 1; see also un cadre institutionnel rénové on associations.gouv.fr).  The government  also hopes to foster and “support” the “associative sector” and “valorize benevolent activity” (associations.gouv.fr, La politique associative de l’Etat see reference to the minister of Youth and Associative Sports, Jean-François Lamour, and government politics; see also Newman, New Relations for more on government relations).
+
Recognizing “a million associations” namely in the humanitarian, development, environmental and human rights sectors, the French government today has expressed interest in open dialogue and partnerships with NGOs (see Ministry of Youth, Sports and Associational Life webpage un cadre institutionnel rénové on associations.gouv.fr, para. 1; Levitte 2005, p.1; and D’Orfeuil 2005 Non Governmental Cooperation, Newsletter no 1, p.2).<ref>In a Tribune for the July 2005 online newsletter of the Embassy of France to the United States, Henri Rouille d’Orfeuil wrote about four types of French NGOs&mdash;“humanitarian action, development aid, defense of human rights, and defense of the environment” (d’Orfeuil, 2005 in Non-Governmental Cooperation, Newsletter n.1).</ref> Newman writes that reinforcing this partnership through a charter signed on July 1, 2001, the State recognizes a place for NGOs within the French national ethos and mutually commits to “‘greater solidarity’” (Newman, New Relations Between the French State and NGOs The “State Association Charter”, para. 1; see also un cadre institutionnel rénové on associations.gouv.fr).  The government  also hopes to foster and “support” the “associative sector” and “valorize benevolent activity” (associations.gouv.fr, La politique associative de l’Etat see reference to the minister of Youth and Associative Sports, Jean-François Lamour, and government politics; see also Newman, New Relations for more on government relations).  
−
On the home front, French NGOs such as Forum Réfugiés and Cimade are reaching out to North African and other immigrant and refugee populations to offer legal services, shape asylum policies and promote advocacy (see http://www.forumrefugies.org/ section Who are We?; see http://www.cimade.org/ section mission; Sorgenfrei 2004, p.4).  Outside of France, this reach continues in the hopes of extending French democratic ideals and public services to countries and civil causes in need of educational and development assistance (see NGO/Non-Governmental Organization at http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr , see Cohen 2004 for an alternate view on French reach and its limitations, p.4-5).
 
−
Thus, despite a rocky history , scholars report that NGOs in France have established footing. New concerns over globalization and decentralization are changing the role NGOs play both in France and abroad (Archambault 2001, p.218). Remarking that the State is still vigilant but no longer hostile, scholars note the French government is becoming more and more open to a cooperative relationship between the third sector (Archambault 2001, p.205, 218, Sorgenfrei 2004,p.11).  
 
  
−
==External Links and Links Referenced==
+
On the home front, French NGOs such as ''Forum Réfugiés'' and ''Cimade'' are reaching out to North African and other immigrant and refugee populations to offer legal services, shape asylum policies and promote advocacy (see http://www.forumrefugies.org/ section Who are We?; see http://www.cimade.org/ section mission; Sorgenfrei 2004, p.4).  Outside of France, this reach continues in the hopes of extending French democratic ideals and public services to countries and civil causes in need of educational and development assistance (see NGO/Non-Governmental Organization at http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr , see Cohen 2004 for an alternate view on French reach and its limitations, p.4-5).
 +
 
 +
Thus, despite a rocky history , scholars report that NGOs in France have established footing. New concerns over ''globalization'' and ''decentralization'' are changing the role NGOs play both in France and abroad (Archambault 2001, p.218). Remarking that the State is still vigilant but no longer hostile, scholars note the French government is becoming more and more open to a cooperative relationship between the third sector (Archambault 2001, p.205, 218, Sorgenfrei 2004, p.11).
  
−
Cimade
 
−
(http://www.cimade.org/)
 
  
−
Embassy of France to the United States, Non Governmental Cooperation Newsletter no. 1 (July 2005) (http://www.ambafrance-us.org)
+
==Notes==
 +
<references/>
  
−
France Diplomatie, NGO/Non-Governmental Organization (http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr)
+
==References==
 +
''This article was originally an article prepared for the NGO Handbook by Lisa M. Le Fevre, titled, French NGOS: A Historical Background.''
  
−
French Ministry of Youth, Sports and Associational Life (http://www.associations.gouv.fr)
+
* Archambault, Edith. 1993. Defining the Nonprofit Sector: France. Working Papers of the Johns Hopkins Comparative Nonprofit Sector Project, no. 7, edited by L.M. Salamon and H.K. Anheier. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Institute for Policy Studies.
 +
 +
* Archambault, Edith.  2001. Historical roots of the nonprofit sector in France. ''Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly'' 30(no.2):  204-220.
  
−
Forum Réfugiés
+
* Cmiel, Kenneth.  2004. [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/109.1/cmiel.html The recent history of human rights]. ''The American Historical Review'' 109(1). Retrieved August 31, 2006.
−
(http://www.forumrefugies.org/)
 
  
−
International Federation of Human Rights (FIDH)
+
Cohen, Samy. 2004. [http://www.brookings.edu/usfrance/analysis/index.htm A model of its own? State-NGO relations in France]. ''U.S.-France Analysis Series, The Brookings Institution''.
−
(http://www.fidh.org) see about us
 
  
−
Newman, Caroline Loussouarn. “New Relations Between the French State and NGOs The “State Association Charter.” (http://www.icnl.org)
+
* De Tocqueville, Alexis. 1956. ''Democracy in America''. Edited and abridged by Richard D. Hefner. New York, New York: New American Library.
  
−
The French Red Cross, Partnership in profile 2002-2003 (http://www.ifrc.org/docs/profiles/frprofile.pdf)
+
* Hunt, Lynn. 1984. ''Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution''. Berkeley, LA: University of California Press. .  
  
−
Wikipedia article, International Committee of the Red Cross (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationa_Comittee_of_the_Red_Cross)
+
* Hunt, Lynn. 1996. ''The French Revolution and Human Rights''. Boston, MA: Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press.  
  
−
Wikipedia article, International Federation of Human Rights (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Federation_of_Human_Rights)
+
* Levitte, Jean-David. 2005. Editorial. Embassy of France to the United States, Non Governmental Cooperation Newsletter no. 1 (July 2005) (http://www.ambafrance-us.org)
  
−
Wikipedia article, Alfred Dreyfus (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Dreyfus)
+
* Newman, Caroline. 2006. [http://www.usig.org/countryinfo/france.asp France country information]. Council on Foundations (June 2005).  Retrieved August 31, 2006.
  
−
Wikipedia article, May 1968 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_1968)
+
* Newman, Caroline. 2002. [http://www.icnl.org/journal/vol4iss23/cr_weurope.htm “New relations between the French state and NGOs. The state association charter]. ''International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law'' 4(2/3). Retrieved February 4, 2008. 
  
−
Wikipedia article, Napoleonic Code (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Code)
+
* Nord, Philip. 1995. The Republican Moment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.  
  
−
Wikipedia. 2008a. Non-governmental organization (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGO). February 4, 2008.
+
* Orfeuil, Henri Rouille. 2005. Coordination Sud, Colaition of French NGO’s. Embassy of France to the United States, Non Governmental Cooperation Newsletter no. 1 (July 2005) (http://www.ambafrance-us.org)
  
−
Wikipedia France, Organisation non-gouvernementale (http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation-non-gouvernementale).
+
* Paul, James A. 2004. “NGOs and Global Policy-Making.” Global Policy Forum. http://www.globalpolicy.org. Retrieved August 31, 2006.
  
−
Wikipedia France, Principales ONG français (http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principales_ONG_fransaises)
+
* Pendergast, William R. 1976. UNESCO and French cultural relations 1945-1970. ''International Organization'' 30(3):  453-483. http://www.jstor.org. Retrieved September 15, 2006. 
  
 +
* Sewell, William H.  1980. Work and Revolution in France – The Language of Labor from the Old Regime to 1848. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  
−
==Notes==
+
* Skjelsbaek, Kjell. 1971. The growth of international nongovernmental organization in the Twentieth Century. ''International Organization'' 25(3), Transnational Relations and World Politics (Summer, 1971), Cambridge University Press, pp. 420-442. http://www.jstor.org (first accessed in 2006 and again on July 2, 2007).
−
<references/>
 
  
−
==References==
+
* Sorgenfrei, Mia.  2004. Capacity building from a French perspective. ''Praxis Papers'' 1: 1-38.  
−
''This article was originally an article prepared for the NGO Handbook by Lisa M. Le Fevre, titled, ''French NGOS: A Historical Background''.
 
  
−
Archambault, Edith. “Defining the Nonprofit Sector: France.” Working Papers of the Johns Hopkins Comparative Nonprofit Sector Project, no. 7, edited by L.M. Salamon and H.K. Anheier. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Institute for Policy Studies, 1993.
+
* Willets, Peter. 2001. What is a non-governmental organization? ''UNESCO Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems'' Section 1 Institutional and Infrastructure Resource Issues (January 4 2002 [first pub.November 21, 2001]), http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/p.willetts/CS-NTWKS/NGO-ART.HTM. Retrieved August 31, 2006.
−
 
−
Archambault, Edith. “Historical Roots of the Nonprofit Sector in France.” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, vol. 30, no.2 (2001):  204-220.
 
  
−
Cmiel, Kenneth.  “The Recent History of Human Rights.” The American Historical Review, vol. 109, issue 1. (2004). http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/109.1/cmiel.html (accessed August 31, 2006).
+
==External Links and Links Referenced==
  
−
Cohen, Samy. “A Model of its Own? State-NGO Relations in France”. U.S.-France Analysis Series, The Brookings Institution (January 2004), http://www.brookings.edu/usfrance/analysis/index.htm.
+
* Cimade. 2008. [http://www.cimade.org La Cimade website]. Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  
−
De Tocqueville, Alexis. Democracy in America. Edited and abridged by Richard D. Hefner. New York, New York: New American Library, 1956.
+
* Embassy of France to the United States. 2005. [http://www.ambafrance-us.org Non-governmental cooperation]. ''Non Governmental Cooperation Newsletter'' 1 (July 2005). Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  
−
Hunt, Lynn. Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution. Berkeley, LA: University of California Press. 1984.  
+
* France Diplomatie. 2008. [http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr NGO/Non-Governmental Organization]. Retrieved February 4, 2008.  
  
−
Hunt, Lynn. The French Revolution and Human Rights. Boston, MA: Bedford Books of St. Martin’s Press, 1996.  
+
* French Ministry of Youth, Sports and Associational Life. 2008. http://www.associations.gouv.fr. Retrieved February 4, 2008.  
  
−
Levitte, Jean-David – Editorial. Embassy of France to the United States, Non Governmental Cooperation Newsletter no. 1 (July 2005) (http://www.ambafrance-us.org)
+
* Forum Réfugiés. 2008. [http://www.forumrefugies.org]. Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  
−
Newman, Caroline. “France Country Information.” Council on Foundations (June 2005), http://www.usig.org/countryinfo/france.asp (accessed August 31, 2006).  
+
* International Federation of Human Rights (FIDH). 2008. [http://www.fidh.org About us]. ''International Federation of Human Rights''. Retrieved February 4, 2008.  
  
−
Newman, Caroline. “New Relations Between the French State and NGOs The “State Association Charter” (http://www.icnl.org)
+
* The French Red Cross. 2008. [http://www.ifrc.org/docs/profiles/frprofile.pdf Partnership in profile 2002-2003]. ''IFRC''. Retrieved February 4, 2008. 
  
−
Nord, Philip. The Republican Moment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.  
+
* Wikipedia. 2008a. Non-governmental organization (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGO). Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  
−
Orfeuil, Henri Rouille, Coordination Sud, Colaition of French NGO’s. Embassy of France to the United States, Non Governmental Cooperation Newsletter no. 1 (July 2005) (http://www.ambafrance-us.org)
+
* Wikipedia. 2008b. International Committee of the Red Cross (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationa_Comittee_of_the_Red_Cross). Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  
−
Paul, James A. “NGOs and Global Policy-Making.” Global Policy Forum (June 2004), http://www.globalpolicy.org (accessed August 31, 2006).
+
* Wikipedia. 2008c. International Federation of Human Rights (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Federation_of_Human_Rights). Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  
−
Pendergast, William R. “UNESCO and French Cultural Relations 1945-1970”. International Organization, vol. 30, no. 3 (1976):  453-483. http://www.jstor.org (accessed September 15, 2006).
+
* Wikipedia. 2008d. Alfred Dreyfus (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Dreyfus). Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  
−
Sewell, William H. Jr. Work and Revolution in France – The Language of Labor from the Old Regime to 1848. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1980.  
+
* Wikipedia. 2008e. May 1968 (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_1968). Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  
−
Skjelsbaek, Kjell. “The Growth of International Nongovernmental Organization in the Twentieth Century.” International Organization Vol. 25, No. 3, Transnational Relations and World Politics (Summer, 1971), Cambridge University Press, pp. 420-442. http://www.jstor.org (first accessed in 2006 and again on July 2, 2007).
+
* Wikipedia. 2008f. Napoleonic Code (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Code). Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  
−
Sorgenfrei, Mia.  “Capacity Building from a French Perspective.” Praxis Papers No. 1 (2004): 1-38.  
+
* Wikipedia French. 2008a. Organisation non-gouvernementale (http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation-non-gouvernementale). Retrieved February 4, 2008.
  
−
Willets, Peter. “What is a Non-Governmental Organization?” UNESCO Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems Section 1 Institutional and Infrastructure Resource Issues (January 4 2002 [first pub.November 21, 2001]), http://www.staff.city.ac.uk/p.willetts/CS-NTWKS/NGO-ART.HTM (accessed August 31, 2006).
+
* Wikipedia French. 2008b. Principales ONG français (http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principales_ONG_fransaises). Retrieved February 4, 2008.

Latest revision as of 07:22, 17 July 2008

Overview

The history of French non-governmental organizations (NGOs), known as organisations non-governementales (ONGs), involves navigating various institutional definitions as well as sifting through time-ordered values attached to the State’s social, economic, and international interests (Archambault 1993, p. p.1; Paul 2000, Sorgenfrei 2004,p.4). As a relatively recent term coined in the aftermath of World War II, the acronym “NGO” first appeared in 1945 in the United Nations Charter[1] (Paul 2000, para. 20; Wikipedia 2008a, section history). Scholars remark that the United Nation’s definition, which differentiates NGOs “from those of government”, is broad enough to cover a multitude of associations, voluntary associations, institutes, non-profits and private foundations (Paul 2000, para. 2; Willets 2002, summary). French NGOs typically include an array of civic and internationally minded players such as mutual societies, development organizations, associations and foundations (Newman 2005).


To read the rest of the article, please log in using your WANGO membership username and password (using the log in at the top, right-hand corner of the page). Not a WANGO member, but would like full access to the articles in the NGO Handbook? Join WANGO (http://www.wango.org/join.aspx) as an organization or individual member or purchase a year subscription for $30.


Retrieved from "https://www.wangohandbook.org/index.php?title=France_NGO_Sector&oldid=814"